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1 Remote sensing procedures
1.1 The importance of NOx
1.1.1 Nitrogen compounds in the atmosphere
1.1.2 Sources of NOx
1.1.2.1 The altitude of NOx emissions
1.1.2.2 Geographical distribution of NOx
1.1.3 NOx in the boundary layer and troposphere
1.1.3.1 NOx and hydrocarbon oxidation
1.1.3.2 The cycling of NO2
1.1.3.3 O3 creation by NO2
1.1.3.4 NO2 and HNO3
1.1.4 NOx in the stratosphere
1.1.5 Measuring NOx
1.1.6 Biomass burning: a remote sensing case study step-by-step
1.2 Satellite measurements of tropospheric NO2
1.2.1 The techniques of satellite-based measurement
1.2.1.1 Polar and near-polar orbits
1.2.1.2 Sun-synchronous orbits
1.2.1.3 The swath of a satellite-borne instrument
1.2.2 Wavelength ranges and environmental applications
1.3 Satellite instruments: GOME and SCIAMACHY
1.3.1 GOME basics
1.3.1.1 GOME nadir mode measurements
1.3.1.2 The GOME scan sequence STEP BY STEP
1.3.2 SCIAMACHY basics
1.3.2.1 SCIAMACHY measurement modes
1.3.2.1.1 Nadir mode measurements
1.3.2.1.2 Limb mode measurements
1.3.2.1.3 Occultation measurements
1.3.2.1.4 Calibration measurements
1.3.2.2 SCIAMACHY measurement sequence
1.3.2.2.1 SCIAMACHY solar and lunar occultation mode measurements
1.3.2.2.2 SCIAMACHY limb/nadir mode measurements
1.3.2.2.3 SCIAMACHY nightside measurements
1.3.2.2.4 SCIAMACHY operating phases STEP-BY-STEP
1.33 GOME and SCIAMACHY contrasted
2 Measuring electromagnetic radiation in the atmosphere
2.1 Fundamentals of radiation measurement
2.1.1 Definitions and units
2.1.2 Blackbody radiation
2.2 Radiative transfer in the atmosphere
2.2.1 The Sun as a source of electromagnetic radiation
2.2.2 Processes of radiative transfer in the atmosphere
2.2.2.1 Absorption
2.2.2.1.1 Beer-Lambert Law: basics
2.2.2.1.2 Beer-Lambert Law definitions
2.2.2.2 Scattering
2.2.2.2.1 Rayleigh scattering
2.2.2.2.2 Mie scattering
2.2.2.2.3 The role of Rayleigh and Mie scattering in producing sky colour
2.2.2.2.4 Raman scattering
2.2.3 Reflection at the surface of the Earth
2.3 The Radiative Transfer Equation
2.3.1 Radiative Transfer Equation: Direct part
2.3.2 Radiative Transfer Equation: Single scattering part
2.3.3 Radiative Transfer Equation: Diffuse part, plane surface
2.3.4 Radiative Transfer Equation: Refraction
2.3.5 Practical Solutions for Radiative Transfer
3 Retrieval procedures
3.1 Irradiance and earthshine
3.1.1 Measurement of direct solar radiation and earthshine
3.1.2 Comparison of sunlight and earthshine
3.2 Interactions in the optical path
3.2.1 Interactions in the optical path
3.2.2 Measurement aberrations caused by the Ring effect
3.2.2.1 Reduction in the depth of Fraunhofer lines caused by Raman scattering
3.2.2.2 Distortion of absorption measurements caused by Raman scattering
3.2.2.3 Vibrational Raman scattering in surface water
3.2.2.4 Generating a pseudo-absorber to compensate for the Ring effect
3.3 The DOAS procedure
3.3.1 Step-by-step graphical guide to the DOAS procedure
3.3.2 The DOAS Radiative Transfer Equation (RTE)
3.4 Measurement columns and airmass factors (AMF)
3.4.1 Extracting tropospheric VCD from total SCD
3.4.2 Stratospheric and tropospheric NO2
3.4.2.1 Stratospheric NO2
3.4.2.2 Tropospheric NO2
3.4.2.3 The elimination of stratospheric NO2 values
3.4.2.3.1 Elimination of stratospheric NO2 using a Pacific reference sector
3.4.2.3.2 Elimination of stratospheric NO2 using limb/nadir matching
3.4.3 The tropospheric airmass factor, AMFtropo
3.4.3.1 The tropospheric airmass factor: geometric dependence
3.4.3.2 The tropospheric airmass factor: altitude dependence
3.4.3.3 The tropospheric airmass factor: surface reflectivity dependence
3.4.3.4 The tropospheric airmass factors: wavelength dependence